Overview
W. R. Berkley Corporation is an insurance holding company that is among the largest commercial lines writers inthe United States and operates worldwide in two segments of the property and casualty business: Insurance and Reinsurance & Monoline Excess. Our decentralized structure provides us with the flexibility to respond quickly and efficiently to local or specific market conditions and to pursue specialty business niches. It also allows us to be closer to our customers in order to better understand their individual needs and risk characteristics. While providing our business units with certain operating autonomy, our structure allows us to capitalize on the benefits of economies of scale through centralized capital, investment, reinsurance, enterprise risk management, and actuarial, financial and corporate legal staff support. The Company's primary sources of revenues and earnings are its insurance operations and its investments. An important part of our strategy is to form new operating units to capitalize on various business opportunities. Over the years, the Company has formed numerous operating units that are focused on important parts of the economy in theU.S. , including healthcare, cyber security, energy and agriculture, and on growing international markets, including theAsia-Pacific region ,South America andMexico . The profitability of the Company's insurance business is affected primarily by the adequacy of premium rates. The ultimate adequacy of premium rates is not known with certainty at the time an insurance policy is issued because premiums are determined before claims are reported. The ultimate adequacy of premium rates is affected mainly by the severity and frequency of claims, which are influenced by many factors, including natural and other disasters, regulatory measures and court decisions that define and change the extent of coverage and the effects of economic inflation on the amount of compensation for injuries or losses. General insurance prices are also influenced by available insurance capacity, i.e., the level of capital employed in the industry, and the industry's willingness to deploy that capital. The Company's profitability is also affected by its investment income and investment gains. The Company's invested assets are invested principally in fixed maturity securities. The return on fixed maturity securities is affected primarily by general interest rates, as well as the credit quality and duration of the securities. Returns available on fixed maturity investments have been at low levels for an extended period. The Company also invests in equity securities, merger arbitrage securities, investment funds, private equity, loans and real estate related assets. The Company's investments in investment funds and its other alternative investments have experienced, and the Company expects to continue to experience, greater fluctuations in investment income. The Company's share of the earnings or losses from investment funds is generally reported on a one-quarter lag in order to facilitate the timely completion of the Company's consolidated financial statements. The COVID-19 pandemic, including the related impact on theU.S. and global economies, has adversely affected our results of operations. For the six months endedJune 30, 2021 , the Company recorded approximately$40 million for current accident year COVID-19-related losses, net of reinsurance. At the same time, COVID-19 has led to reduced loss frequency in certain lines of business (which has begun a return to pre-pandemic levels as many economies and legal systems have reopened as a result of populations becoming vaccinated). The ultimate impact of COVID-19 on the economy and the Company's results of operations, financial position and liquidity is not within the Company's control and unclear due to, among other factors, uncertainty in connection with its claims, reserves and reinsurance recoverables. The scope, duration and magnitude of the direct and indirect effects of COVID-19 continue to evolve in ways that are difficult or impossible to anticipate. While many of the potential impacts on the Company have receded as populations have begun to become vaccinated, new variants of the COVID-19 virus, including the "Delta" variant, and the slowing of vaccination rates among certain populations, continue to create risks to the Company. As a result, the impact of COVID-19 on the Company's results of operations for the first six months of 2021 is not necessarily indicative of its impact for the remainder of 2021 or beyond. Despite the effects of COVID-19 to date, the Company's financial position and liquidity improved for the six months endedJune 30, 2021 .
Critical Accounting Estimates
The following presents a discussion of accounting policies and estimates relating to reserves for losses and loss expenses, assumed premiums and allowance for expected credit losses on investments. Management believes these policies and estimates are the most critical to its operations and require the most difficult, subjective and complex judgments. Reserves for Losses and Loss Expenses. To recognize liabilities for unpaid losses, either known or unknown, insurers establish reserves, which is a balance sheet account representing estimates of future amounts needed to pay claims and 31 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- related expenses with respect to insured events which have occurred. Estimates and assumptions relating to reserves for losses and loss expenses are based on complex and subjective judgments, often including the interplay of specific uncertainties with related accounting and actuarial measurements. Such estimates are also susceptible to change as significant periods of time may elapse between the occurrence of an insured loss, the report of the loss to the insurer, the ultimate determination of the cost of the loss and the insurer's payment of that loss. In general, when a claim is reported, claims personnel establish a "case reserve" for the estimated amount of the ultimate payment based upon known information about the claim at that time. The estimate represents an informed judgment based on general reserving practices and reflects the experience and knowledge of the claims personnel regarding the nature and value of the specific type of claim. Reserves are also established on an aggregate basis to provide for losses incurred but not reported ("IBNR") to the insurer, potential inadequacy of case reserves and the estimated expenses of settling claims, including legal and other fees and general expenses of administrating the claims adjustment process. Reserves are established based upon the then current legal interpretation of coverage provided. In examining reserve adequacy, several factors are considered in estimating the ultimate economic value of losses. These factors include, among other things, historical data, legal developments, changes in social attitudes and economic conditions, including the effects of inflation. The actuarial process relies on the basic assumption that past experience, adjusted judgmentally for the effects of current developments and anticipated trends, is an appropriate basis for predicting future outcomes. Reserve amounts are based on management's informed estimates and judgments using currently available data. As additional experience and other data become available and are reviewed, these estimates and judgments may be revised. This may result in reserve increases or decreases that would be reflected in our results in periods in which such estimates and assumptions are changed. Reserves do not represent an exact calculation of liability. Rather, reserves represent an estimate of what management expects the ultimate settlement and claim administration will cost. While the methods for establishing reserves are well tested over time, some of the major assumptions about anticipated loss emergence patterns are subject to uncertainty. These estimates, which generally involve actuarial projections, are based on management's assessment of facts and circumstances then known, as well as estimates of trends in claims severity and frequency, judicial theories of liability and other factors, including the actions of third parties which are beyond the Company's control. These variables are affected by external and internal events, such as inflation and economic volatility, judicial and litigation trends, reinsurance coverage, legislative changes and claim handling and reserving practices, which make it more difficult to accurately predict claim costs. The inherent uncertainties of estimating reserves are greater for certain types of liabilities where long periods of time elapse before a definitive determination of liability is made. Because setting reserves is inherently uncertain, the Company cannot provide assurance that its current reserves will prove adequate in light of subsequent events. Loss reserves included in the Company's financial statements represent management's best estimates based upon an actuarially derived point estimate and other considerations. The Company uses a variety of actuarial techniques and methods to derive an actuarial point estimate for each operating unit. These methods include paid loss development, incurred loss development, paid and incurred Bornhuetter-Ferguson methods and frequency and severity methods. In circumstances where one actuarial method is considered more credible than the others, that method is used to set the point estimate. For example, the paid loss and incurred loss development methods rely on historical paid and incurred loss data. For new lines of business, where there is insufficient history of paid and incurred claims data, or in circumstances where there have been significant changes in claim practices, the paid and incurred loss development methods would be less credible than other actuarial methods. The actuarial point estimate may also be based on a judgmental weighting of estimates produced from each of the methods considered. Industry loss experience is used to supplement the Company's own data in selecting "tail factors" and in areas where the Company's own data is limited. The actuarial data is analyzed by line of business, coverage and accident or policy year, as appropriate, for each operating unit. The establishment of the actuarially derived loss reserve point estimate also includes consideration of qualitative factors that may affect the ultimate losses. These qualitative considerations include, among others, the impact of re-underwriting initiatives, changes in the mix of business, changes in distribution sources and changes in policy terms and conditions. Examples of changes in terms and conditions that can have a significant impact on reserve levels are the use of aggregate policy limits, the expansion of coverage exclusions, whether or not defense costs are within policy limits, and changes in deductibles and attachment points. The key assumptions used to arrive at the best estimate of loss reserves are the expected loss ratios, rate of loss cost inflation, and reported and paid loss emergence patterns. Expected loss ratios represent management's expectation of losses at the time the business is written, before any actual claims experience has emerged. This expectation is a significant determinant of the estimate of loss reserves for recently written business where there is little paid or incurred loss data to consider. Expected loss ratios are generally derived from historical loss ratios adjusted for the impact of rate changes, loss cost trends and known 32 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- changes in the type of risks underwritten. Expected loss ratios are estimated for each key line of business within each operating unit. Expected loss cost inflation is particularly important for the long-tail lines, such as excess casualty, and claims with a high medical component, such as workers' compensation. Reported and paid loss emergence patterns are used to project current reported or paid loss amounts to their ultimate settlement value. Loss development factors are based on the historical emergence patterns of paid and incurred losses, and are derived from the Company's own experience and industry data. The paid loss emergence pattern is also significant to excess and assumed workers' compensation reserves because those reserves are discounted to their estimated present value based upon such estimated payout patterns. Management believes the estimates and assumptions it makes in the reserving process provide the best estimate of the ultimate cost of settling claims and related expenses with respect to insured events which have occurred; however, different assumptions and variables could lead to significantly different reserve estimates. Loss frequency and severity are measures of loss activity that are considered in determining the key assumptions described in our discussion of loss and loss expense reserves, including expected loss ratios, rate of loss cost inflation and reported and paid loss emergence patterns. Loss frequency is a measure of the number of claims per unit of insured exposure, and loss severity is a measure of the average size of claims. Factors affecting loss frequency include the effectiveness of loss controls and safety programs and changes in economic activity or weather patterns. Factors affecting loss severity include changes in policy limits, retentions, rate of inflation and judicial interpretations. Another factor affecting estimates of loss frequency and severity is the loss reporting lag, which is the period of time between the occurrence of a loss and the date the loss is reported to the Company. The length of the loss reporting lag affects our ability to accurately predict loss frequency (loss frequencies are more predictable for lines with short reporting lags) as well as the amount of reserves needed for incurred but not reported losses (less IBNR is required for lines with short reporting lags). As a result, loss reserves for lines with short reporting lags are likely to have less variation from initial loss estimates. For lines with short reporting lags, which include commercial automobile, primary workers' compensation, other liability (claims-made) and property business, the key assumption is the loss emergence pattern used to project ultimate loss estimates from known losses paid or reported to date. For lines of business with long reporting lags, which include other liability (occurrence), products liability, excess workers' compensation and liability reinsurance, the key assumption is the expected loss ratio since there is often little paid or incurred loss data to consider. Historically, the Company has experienced less variation from its initial loss estimates for lines of businesses with short reporting lags than for lines of business with long reporting lags. The key assumptions used in calculating the most recent estimate of the loss reserves are reviewed each quarter and adjusted, to the extent necessary, to reflect the latest reported loss data, current trends and other factors observed. If the actual level of loss frequency and severity are higher or lower than expected, the ultimate losses will be different than management's estimate. The following table reflects the impact of changes (which could be favorable or unfavorable) in frequency and severity, relative to our assumptions, on our loss estimate for claims occurring in 2020: (In thousands) Frequency (+/-) Severity (+/-) 1% 5% 10% 1%$ 89,102 $ 268,193 $ 492,056 5% 268,193 454,376 687,105 10% 492,056 687,105 930,917 Our net reserves for losses and loss expenses of approximately$12.2 billion as ofJune 30, 2021 relate to multiple accident years. Therefore, the impact of changes in frequency or severity for more than one accident year could be higher or lower than the amounts reflected above. The impact of such changes would likely be manifested gradually over the course of many years, as the magnitude of the changes became evident. Approximately$2.7 billion , or 22%, of the Company's net loss reserves as ofJune 30, 2021 relate to the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment. There is a higher degree of uncertainty and greater variability regarding estimates of excess workers' compensation and assumed reinsurance loss reserves. In the case of excess workers' compensation, our policies generally attach at$1 million or higher. The claims which reach our layer therefore tend to involve the most serious injuries and many remain open for the lifetime of the claimant, which extends the claim settlement tail. These claims also occur less frequently but tend to be larger than primary claims, which increases claim variability. In the case of assumed reinsurance our loss reserve estimates are based, in part, upon information received from ceding companies. If information received from ceding companies is not timely or correct, the Company's estimate of ultimate losses may not be accurate. Furthermore, due to delayed reporting of claim information by ceding companies, the claim settlement tail for assumed reinsurance is also extended. Management considers the impact of delayed reporting and the extended tail in its selection of loss development factors for these lines of business. 33 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Information received from ceding companies is used to set initial expected loss ratios, to establish case reserves and to estimate reserves for incurred but not reported losses on assumed reinsurance business. This information, which is generally provided through reinsurance intermediaries, is gathered through the underwriting process and from periodic claim reports and other correspondence with ceding companies. The Company performs underwriting and claim audits of selected ceding companies to determine the accuracy and completeness of information provided to the Company. The information received from the ceding companies is supplemented by the Company's own loss development experience with similar lines of business as well as industry loss trends and loss development benchmarks. Following is a summary of the Company's reserves for losses and loss expenses by business segment: June 30, December 31, (In thousands) 2021 2020 Insurance$ 9,507,305 $ 9,034,969 Reinsurance & Monoline Excess 2,657,354
2,585,424
Net reserves for losses and loss expenses 12,164,659 11,620,393
Ceded reserves for losses and loss expenses 2,316,288 2,164,037
Gross reserves for losses and loss expenses
Following is a summary of the Company's net reserves for losses and loss expenses by major line of business:
Reported Case Incurred But Total (In thousands) Reserves Not ReportedJune 30, 2021 Other liability$ 1,673,040 $ 2,998,980 $ 4,672,020 Workers' compensation (1) 993,429 871,719 1,865,148 Professional liability 430,557 973,725 1,404,282 Commercial automobile 449,611 404,732 854,343 Short-tail lines (2) 297,384 414,128 711,512Total Insurance 3,844,021 5,663,284 9,507,305
Reinsurance & Monoline Excess (1) (3) 1,473,208 1,184,146
2,657,354 Total$ 5,317,229 $ 6,847,430 $ 12,164,659 December 31, 2020 Other liability$ 1,534,514 $ 2,864,760 $ 4,399,274 Workers' compensation (1) 977,035 873,072 1,850,107 Professional liability 414,104 875,163 1,289,267 Commercial automobile 442,975 398,688 841,663 Short-tail lines (2) 295,313 359,345 654,658Total Insurance 3,663,941 5,371,028 9,034,969
Reinsurance & Monoline Excess (1) (3) 1,442,099 1,143,325
2,585,424 Total$ 5,106,040 $ 6,514,353 $ 11,620,393 ___________ (1) Reserves for workers' compensation and Reinsurance & Monoline Excess are net of an aggregate net discount of$472 million and$483 million as ofJune 30, 2021 andDecember 31, 2020 , respectively. (2) Short-tail lines include commercial multi-peril (non-liability), inland marine, accident and health, fidelity and surety, boiler and machinery and other lines. (3) Reinsurance & Monoline Excess includes property and casualty reinsurance, as well as operations that solely retain risk on an excess basis. The Company evaluates reserves for losses and loss adjustment expenses on a quarterly basis. Changes in estimates of prior year losses are reported when such changes are made. The changes in prior year loss reserve estimates are generally the result of ongoing analysis of recent loss development trends. Original estimates are increased or decreased as additional information becomes known regarding individual claims and aggregate claim trends. 34 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Certain of the Company's insurance and reinsurance contracts are retrospectively rated, whereby the Company collects more or less premiums based on the level of loss activity. For those contracts, changes in loss and loss adjustment expenses for prior years may be fully or partially offset by additional or return premiums. Net prior year development (i.e., the sum of prior year reserve changes and prior year earned premiums changes) for the six months endedJune 30, 2021 and 2020 are as follows: (In thousands) 2021 2020 Net increase in prior year loss reserves$ (1,530) $ (2,050) Increase in prior year earned premiums 5,384 9,077 Net favorable prior year development$ 3,854 $ 7,027 The COVID-19 global pandemic has impacted, and may further impact, the Company's results through its effect on claim frequency and severity. Loss cost trends have been impacted and may be further impacted by COVID-19-related claims in certain lines of business. Losses incurred from COVID-19-related claims have been offset, to a certain extent, by lower claim frequency in certain lines of our businesses; however, as the economy and legal systems have reopened, the benefit of lower claim frequency has begun to abate. Although as populations have continued to be vaccinated against the virus and the effects of the pandemic have receded in many jurisdictions, most particularlythe United States , it remains too early to determine the ultimate net impact of COVID-19 on the Company. New variants of the COVID-19 virus, including the "Delta" variant, and the slowing of vaccination rates among certain populations continue to create risks with respect to loss costs and the potential for renewed impact of the other effects of COVID-19 associated with economic conditions, inflation, and social distancing and work from home rules. Most of the COVID-19-related claims reported to the Company to date involve certain short-tailed lines of business, including contingency and event cancellation, business interruption, and film production delay. The Company has also received COVID-19-related claims for longer-tailed casualty lines of business such as workers' compensation and other liability; however, the estimated incurred loss impact for these reported claims are not material at this time. Given the continuing uncertainty regarding the pandemic's pervasiveness, the future impact that the pandemic may have on claim frequency and severity remains uncertain at this time. The Company has estimated the potential COVID-19 impact to its contingency and event cancellation, workers' compensation, and other lines of business under a number of possible scenarios; however, due to COVID-19's continued evolving impact, there remains a high degree of uncertainty around the Company's COVID-19 reserves. In addition, should the pandemic continue or worsen as a result of new COVID-19 variants or otherwise, governments in the jurisdictions where we operate may renew their efforts to expand policy coverage terms beyond the policy's intended coverage. Accordingly, losses arising from these actions, and the other factors described above, could exceed the Company's reserves established for those related policies. As ofJune 30, 2021 , the Company had recognized losses for COVID-19-related claims activity, net of reinsurance, of approximately$241 million , of which$208 million relates to the Insurance segment and$33 million relates to the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment. Such$241 million of COVID-19-related losses included$164 million of reported losses and$77 million of IBNR. For the six months endedJune 30, 2021 , the Company recognized current accident year losses for COVID-19-related claims activity, net of reinsurance, of approximately$40 million , of which$38 million relates to the Insurance segment and$2 million relates to the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment. During the six months endedJune 30, 2021 , favorable prior year development (net of additional and return premiums) of$4 million included$12 million of favorable development for the Insurance segment, partially offset by$8 million of adverse development for the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment. The overall favorable development for the Insurance segment was primarily attributable to favorable development on the 2020 accident year, partially offset by adverse development on the 2016 through 2019 accident years. The favorable development on the 2020 accident year was largely concentrated in the commercial auto liability and other liability lines of business. During 2020 the Company achieved larger rate increases in these lines of business than were contemplated in our budget and in our initial loss ratio selections. The Company also experienced significantly lower reported claim frequency in these lines in 2020 relative to historical averages, and lower reported incurred losses relative to our expectations. We believe that the lower claim frequency and lower reported incurred losses were caused by the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, for example, lockdowns, reduced driving and traffic, work from home, court closures, etc.; however, due to the ongoing uncertainty regarding the ultimate impacts of the pandemic on accident year 2020 incurred losses, the Company did not adjust its reserves due to these lower trends during 2020. However, as the accident year has begun to mature, the Company has recognized some of the favorable accident year 2020 experience in its ultimate loss picks made as ofJune 30, 2021 . The adverse development on the 2016 through 2019 accident years is concentrated in the other liability line of business, and is driven by a larger number 35 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- than expected of large losses reported. The large losses particularly impacted directors and officers liability and excess and surplus lines casualty classes of business. The overall adverse development for the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment was mainly concentrated in the non-proportional reinsurance assumed liability and non-proportional reinsurance assumed property lines of business, related to accident years 2018 through 2020. The development was driven by higher than expected reported losses on excess of loss treaties written in theU.S. and U.K. During the six months endedJune 30, 2020 , favorable prior year development (net of additional and return premiums) of$7 million included$12 million of favorable development for the Insurance segment, partially offset by$5 million of adverse development for the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment. The overall favorable development for the Insurance segment was primarily attributable to favorable development on workers' compensation business, partially offset by adverse development on professional liability business. The favorable workers' compensation development was spread across many accident years, including prior to 2010, but was especially significant in accident year 2019. The favorable workers' compensation development reflects a continuation of the benign loss cost trends experienced during recent years, particularly the favorable claim frequency trends (i.e., number of reported claims per unit of exposure). The Company's ongoing workers' compensation claims management efforts, including active medical case management and use of networks and specialty vendors to control medical and pharmaceutical benefit costs, have also added to the favorable workers' compensation prior year development. The adverse professional liability development was concentrated in accident years 2016 through 2018 and predominately resulted from a greater than expected number of large losses being reported in the period in two niches of our professional liability business. The adverse development for the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment was mainly driven by non-proportional reinsurance assumed liability business written in theU.K. , primarily from accident years 2014 through 2018. The development was driven by a greater than expected number of reported large losses during the period. Reserve Discount. The Company discounts its liabilities for certain workers' compensation reserves. The amount of workers' compensation reserves that were discounted was$1,406 million and$1,655 million atJune 30, 2021 andDecember 31, 2020 , respectively. The aggregate net discount for those reserves, after reflecting the effects of ceded reinsurance, was$472 million and$483 million atJune 30, 2021 andDecember 31, 2020 , respectively. AtJune 30, 2021 , discount rates by year ranged from 0.7% to 6.5%, with a weighted average discount rate of 3.5%. Substantially all of the workers' compensation discount (97% of total discounted reserves atJune 30, 2021 ) relates to excess workers' compensation reserves. In order to properly match loss expenses with income earned on investment securities supporting the liabilities, reserves for excess workers' compensation business are discounted using risk-free discount rates determined by reference to theU.S. Treasury yield curve. These rates are determined annually based on the weighted average rate for the period. Once established, no adjustments are made to the discount rate for that period, and any increases or decreases in loss reserves in subsequent years are discounted at the same rate, without regard to when any such adjustments are recognized. The expected loss and loss expense payout patterns subject to discounting are derived from the Company's loss payout experience. The Company also discounts reserves for certain other long-duration workers' compensation reserves (representing approximately 3% of total discounted reserves atJune 30, 2021 ), including reserves for quota share reinsurance and reserves related to losses regarding occupational lung disease. These reserves are discounted at statutory rates permitted by theDepartment of Insurance of the State of Delaware . Assumed Reinsurance Premiums. The Company estimates the amount of assumed reinsurance premiums that it will receive under treaty reinsurance agreements at the inception of the contracts. These premium estimates are revised as the actual amount of assumed premiums is reported to the Company by the ceding companies. As estimates of assumed premiums are made or revised, the related amount of earned premiums, commissions and incurred losses associated with those premiums are recorded. Estimated assumed premiums receivable were approximately$54 million atJune 30, 2021 and$44 million atDecember 31, 2020 . The assumed premium estimates are based upon terms set forth in reinsurance agreements, information received from ceding companies during the underwriting and negotiation of agreements, reports received from ceding companies and discussions and correspondence with reinsurance intermediaries. The Company also considers its own view of market conditions, economic trends and experience with similar lines of business. These premium estimates represent management's best estimate of the ultimate amount of premiums to be received under its assumed reinsurance agreements.
Allowance for Expected Credit Losses on Investments.
Fixed Maturity Securities - For fixed maturity securities in an unrealized loss position where the Company intends to sell, or it is more likely than not that it will be required to sell the security before recovery in value, the amortized cost basis is written down to fair value through net investment gains (losses). For fixed maturity securities in an unrealized loss position 36 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- where the Company does not intend to sell, or it is more likely than not that it will not be required to sell the security before recovery in value, the Company evaluates whether the decline in fair value has resulted from credit losses or all other factors (non-credit factors). In making this assessment, the Company considers the extent to which fair value is less than amortized cost, changes to the rating of the security by a rating agency, and adverse conditions specifically related to the security, among other factors. If this assessment indicates that a credit loss exists, the present value of cash flows expected to be collected from the security are compared to the amortized cost basis of the security. If the present value of cash flows expected to be collected is less than the amortized cost basis, an allowance for expected credit losses is recorded for the credit loss through net investment gains (losses), limited by the amount that the fair value is less than the amortized cost basis. EffectiveJanuary 1, 2020 , the allowance is adjusted for any change in expected credit losses and subsequent recoveries through net investment gains (losses). The impairment related to non-credit factors is recognized in other comprehensive income (loss). The Company's credit assessment of allowance for expected credit losses uses a third party model for available for sale and held to maturity securities, as well as loans receivable. The allowance for expected credit losses is generally based on the performance of the underlying collateral under various economic and default scenarios that involve subjective judgments and estimates by management. Modeling these securities involves various factors, such as projected default rates, the nature and realizable value of the collateral, if any, the ability of the issuer to make scheduled payments, historical performance and other relevant economic and performance factors. A discounted cash flow analysis is used to ascertain the amount of the allowance for expected credit losses, if any. In general, the model reverts to the rating-level long-term average marginal default rates based on 10 years of historical data, beyond the forecast period. For other inputs, the model in most cases reverts to the baseline long-term assumptions linearly over 5 years beyond the forecast period. The long-term assumptions are based on the historical averages. The Company classifies its fixed maturity securities by credit rating, primarily based on ratings assigned by credit rating agencies. For purposes of classifying securities with different ratings, the Company uses the average of the credit ratings assigned, unless in limited situations the Company's own analysis indicates an internal rating is more appropriate. Securities that are not rated by a rating agency are evaluated and classified by the Company on a case-by-case basis. A summary of the Company's non-investment grade fixed maturity securities that were in an unrealized loss position atJune 30, 2021 is presented in the table below: Number of Aggregate ($ in thousands) Securities Fair Value Gross Unrealized Loss Foreign government 27$ 108,910 $ 30,171 Corporate 10 36,482 2,058 Mortgage-backed 4 276 19 Asset-backed 1 113 1 Total 42$ 145,781 $ 32,249 As ofJune 30, 2021 , the Company has recorded an allowance for expected credit losses on fixed maturity securities of$19 million . The Company has evaluated the remaining fixed maturity securities in an unrealized loss position and believes the unrealized losses are due primarily to temporary market and sector-related factors rather than to issuer-specific factors. None of these securities are delinquent or in default under financial covenants. Based on its assessment of these issuers, the Company expects them to continue to meet their contractual payment obligations as they become due. Loans Receivable - For loans receivable, the Company estimates an allowance for expected credit losses based on relevant information about past events, including historical loss experience, current conditions and forecasts that affect the expected collectability of the amortized cost of the financial asset. The allowance for expected credit losses is presented as a reduction to amortized cost of the financial asset in the consolidated balance sheet and changes to the estimate for expected credit losses are recognized through net investment gains (losses). Loans receivable are reported net of an allowance for expected credit losses of$2 million and$5 million as ofJune 30, 2021 andDecember 31, 2020 , respectively. Fair Value Measurements. The Company's fixed maturity available for sale securities, equity securities, and its arbitrage trading account securities are carried at fair value. Fair value is defined as "the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date." The Company utilizes a fair value hierarchy that prioritizes the inputs to valuation techniques used to measure fair value into three broad levels. Level 1 inputs are quoted prices (unadjusted) in active markets for identical assets or liabilities that the reporting entity has the ability to access at the measurement date. Level 2 inputs are inputs other than quoted prices included within Level 1 that are observable for similar assets in active markets. Level 3 inputs are unobservable inputs for the asset or liability. Unobservable inputs may only be used to measure fair value to the extent that observable inputs are not available. The fair 37 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
value of the vast majority of the Company's portfolio is based on observable data (other than quoted prices) and, accordingly, is classified as Level 2.
In classifying particular financial securities in the fair value hierarchy, the Company uses its judgment to determine whether the market for a security is active and whether significant pricing inputs are observable. The Company determines the existence of an active market by assessing whether transactions occur with sufficient frequency and volume to provide reliable pricing information. The Company determines whether inputs are observable based on the use of such information by pricing services and external investment managers, the uninterrupted availability of such inputs, the need to make significant adjustments to such inputs and the volatility of such inputs over time. If the market for a security is determined to be inactive or if significant inputs used to price a security are determined to be unobservable, the security is categorized in Level 3 of the fair value hierarchy. Because many fixed maturity securities do not trade on a daily basis, the Company utilizes pricing models and processes which may include benchmark curves, benchmarking of like securities, sector groupings and matrix pricing. Market inputs used to evaluate securities include benchmark yields, reported trades, broker/dealer quotes, issuer spreads, two-sided markets, benchmark securities, bids, offers and reference data. Quoted prices are often unavailable for recently issued securities that are infrequently traded or securities that are only traded in private transactions. For publicly traded securities for which quoted prices are unavailable, the Company determines fair value based on independent broker quotations and other observable market data. For securities traded only in private negotiations, the Company determines fair value based primarily on the cost of such securities, which is adjusted to reflect prices of recent placements of securities of the same issuer, financial data, projections and business developments of the issuer and other relevant information.
The following is a summary of pricing sources for the Company's fixed maturity
securities available for sale as of
Carrying Percent ($ in thousands) Value of Total
Pricing source:
Independent pricing services
52,962 0.3 Directly by the Company based on: Observable data 185,982 1.2 Total$ 15,579,927 100.0 % Independent pricing services - Substantially all of the Company's fixed maturity securities available for sale were priced by independent pricing services (generally oneU.S. pricing service plus additional pricing services with respect to a limited number of foreign securities held by the Company). The prices provided by the independent pricing services are generally based on observable market data in active markets (e.g., broker quotes and prices observed for comparable securities). The determination of whether markets are active or inactive is based upon the volume and level of activity for a particular asset class. The Company reviews the prices provided by pricing services for reasonableness based upon current trading levels for similar securities. If the prices appear unusual to the Company, they are re-examined and the value is either confirmed or revised. In addition, the Company periodically performs independent price tests of a sample of securities to ensure proper valuation and to verify our understanding of how securities are priced. As ofJune 30, 2021 , the Company did not make any adjustments to the prices provided by the pricing services. Based upon the Company's review of the methodologies used by the independent pricing services, these securities were classified as Level 2. Syndicate manager - The Company has a 15% participation in a Lloyd's syndicate, and the Company's share of the securities owned by the syndicate is priced by the syndicate's manager. The majority of the securities are liquid, short duration fixed maturity securities. The Company reviews the syndicate manager's pricing methodology and audited financial statements and holds discussions with the syndicate manager as necessary to confirm its understanding and agreement with security prices. Based upon the Company's review of the methodologies used by the syndicate manager, these securities were classified as Level 2. Observable data - If independent pricing is not available, the Company prices the securities directly. Prices are based on observable market data where available, including current trading levels for similar securities and non-binding quotations from brokers. The Company generally requests two or more quotes. If more than one quote is received, the Company sets a price within the range of quotes received based on its assessment of the credibility of the quote and its own evaluation of the security. The Company generally does not adjust quotes obtained from brokers. Since these securities were priced based on observable data, they were classified as Level 2. 38 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Cash flow model - If the above methodologies are not available, the Company prices securities using a discounted cash flow model based upon assumptions as to prevailing credit spreads, interest rates and interest rate volatility, time to maturity and subordination levels. Discount rates are adjusted to reflect illiquidity where appropriate. These securities were classified as Level 3. 39 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Results of Operations for the Six Months Ended
Following is a summary of gross and net premiums written, net premiums earned, loss ratios (losses and loss expenses incurred expressed as a percentage of net premiums earned), expense ratios (underwriting expenses expressed as a percentage of net premiums earned) and GAAP combined ratios (sum of loss ratio and expense ratio) for each of our business segments for the six months endedJune 30, 2021 and 2020. The GAAP combined ratio represents a measure of underwriting profitability, excluding investment income. A GAAP combined ratio in excess of 100 indicates an underwriting loss; a number below 100 indicates an underwriting profit. ($ in thousands) 2021 2020 Insurance: Gross premiums written$ 4,561,859 $ 3,859,511 Net premiums written 3,734,036 3,126,475 Net premiums earned 3,332,181 2,949,999 Loss ratio 61.3 % 66.1 % Expense ratio 28.9 % 31.0 % GAAP combined ratio 90.2 % 97.1 % Reinsurance & Monoline Excess: Gross premiums written$ 584,089 $ 504,107 Net premiums written 528,183 459,189 Net premiums earned 489,399 418,334 Loss ratio 57.4 % 70.3 % Expense ratio 30.6 % 32.6 % GAAP combined ratio 88.0 % 102.9 % Consolidated: Gross premiums written$ 5,145,948 $ 4,363,618 Net premiums written 4,262,219 3,585,664 Net premiums earned 3,821,580 3,368,333 Loss ratio 60.8 % 66.6 % Expense ratio 29.1 % 31.2 % GAAP combined ratio 89.9 % 97.8 % Net Income to Common Stockholders. The following table presents the Company's net income to common stockholders and net income per diluted share for the six months endedJune 30, 2021 and 2020: (In thousands, except per share data) 2021 2020 Net income to common stockholders$ 466,763 $ 66,842 Weighted average diluted shares 186,985 190,078 Net income per diluted share$ 2.50 $ 0.35 The Company reported net income to common stockholders of$467 million in 2021 compared to$67 million in 2020. The$400 million increase in net income was primarily due to an after-tax increase in underwriting income of$244 million mainly due to the growth in premium rates and exposure as well as reductions in loss ratio partly due to lower catastrophe losses and in expense ratio driven by net earned premium growth outpacing expense growth, an after-tax increase in net investment gains of$125 million (primarily resulting from the sale of certain real estate assets, change in market value on equity securities and the gain from disposition of an asset in an investment fund), an after-tax increase in net investment income of$52 million primarily due to investment funds, a reduction of$10 million in tax expense due to a change in the effective tax rate, an after-tax increase in profits from non-insurance businesses of$4 million and an after-tax increase in profit from insurance service businesses of$2 million , partially offset by an after-tax decrease in foreign currency gains of$17 million , an after-tax increase in corporate expenses of$18 million which includes an after-tax debt extinguishment expense of$9 million on debt redeemed in 2021 and increased incentive compensation costs, an after-tax decrease in other income of$1 million and an after-tax increase in minority interest expense of$1 million . The number of weighted average diluted shares decreased by approximately three million for 2021 compared to 2020 mainly reflecting shares repurchased in 2020 and 2021. 40 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Premiums. Gross premiums written were$5,146 million in 2021, an increase of 18% from$4,364 million in 2020. The increase was due to a$702 million increase in the Insurance segment and a$80 million increase in the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment. Approximately 81% of premiums expiring in 2021 were renewed, and 79% of premiums expiring in 2020 were renewed.
Average renewal premium rates for insurance and facultative reinsurance increased 9.8% in 2021 when adjusted for changes in exposures, and increased 11.2% excluding workers' compensation.
A summary of gross premiums written in 2021 compared with 2020 by line of business within each business segment follows: •Insurance - gross premiums increased 18% to$4,562 million in 2021 from$3,860 million in 2020. Gross premiums increased$248 million (18%) for other liability,$234 million (43%) for professional liability,$119 million (27%) for commercial auto and$101 million (11%) for short-tail lines. •Reinsurance & Monoline Excess - gross premiums increased 16% to$584 million in 2021 from$504 million in 2020. Gross premiums increased$57 million (20%) for casualty reinsurance,$21 million (19%) for monoline excess and$2 million (2%) for property reinsurance.
Net premiums written were
Premiums earned increased 13% to$3,822 million in 2021 from$3,368 million in 2020. Insurance premiums (including the impact of rate changes) are generally earned evenly over the policy term, and accordingly, recent rate increases will be earned over the upcoming quarters. Premiums earned in 2021 are related to business written during both 2021 and 2020. Audit premiums were$84 million in 2021 compared with$83 million in 2020.
Net Investment Income. Following is a summary of net investment income for the
six months ended
Average Annualized Amount Yield ($ in thousands) 2021 2020 2021 2020 Fixed maturity securities, including cash and cash equivalents and loans receivable$ 191,673 $ 233,861 2.2 % 3.1 % Investment funds 100,246 (16,975) 14.8 (2.8) Arbitrage trading account 22,989 32,442 8.4 11.6 Equity securities 13,392 4,288 4.9 2.4 Real estate 2,032 11,141 0.2 1.1 Gross investment income 330,332 264,757 3.1 2.7 Investment expenses (3,568) (4,563) - - Total$ 326,764 $ 260,194 3.0 % 2.7 % Net investment income increased 26% to$327 million in 2021 from$260 million in 2020 due primarily to a$117 million increase in income from investment funds primarily from financial services and energy funds, a$9 million increase from equity securities and a$1 million decrease in investment expense, partially offset by a$42 million decrease in income from fixed maturity securities mainly driven by lower investment yields, a$9 million decrease from the arbitrage trading account and a$9 million decrease in real estate. The Company shortened the duration of its fixed maturity security portfolio, thereby reducing the potential impact of mark-to-market on the portfolio and positioning the Company to react quickly to changes in the current interest rate environment. Average invested assets, at cost (including cash and cash equivalents), were$21.6 billion in 2021 and$19.5 billion in 2020. Insurance Service Fees. The Company earns fees from an insurance distribution business, a third-party administrator and as a servicing carrier of workers' compensation assigned risk plans for certain states. Insurance service fees increased to$48 million in 2021 from$46 million in 2020, mainly due to the business recovery from the pandemic. Net Realized and Unrealized Gains (Losses) on Investments. The Company buys and sells securities and other investment assets on a regular basis in order to maximize its total return on investments. Decisions to sell securities and other investment assets are based on management's view of the underlying fundamentals of specific investments as well as management's expectations regarding interest rates, credit spreads, currency values and general economic conditions. Net 41 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- realized and unrealized gains on investments were$72 million in 2021 compared with net losses of$82 million in 2020. The gains of$72 million in 2021 reflect net realized gains on investments of$115 million (primarily due to the sale of certain real estate assets and the disposition of an investment fund) partially offset by an increase in unrealized losses on equity securities of$43 million . In 2020, the net losses of$82 million reflected net realized gains on investment sales of$11 million and an increase in unrealized losses on equity securities of$93 million , which was primarily due to market disruptions as a result of COVID-19. Change in Allowance for Expected Credit Losses on Investments. Based on credit factors, the allowance for expected credit losses is increased or decreased depending on the percentage of unrealized loss relative to amortized cost by security, changes in rating of the security by a rating agency, and adverse conditions specifically related to the security, among other factors. For the six months endedJune 30, 2021 , the pre-tax change in allowance for expected credit losses on investments increased by$13 million ($10 million after-tax), which is reflected in net investment gains (losses), primarily related to foreign government securities which did not previously have an allowance. For the six months endedJune 30, 2020 , the pre-tax change in allowance for expected credit losses on investments increased by$18 million ($14 million after-tax), which is reflected in net investment gains (losses) primarily related to market disruptions as a result of COVID-19. Revenues from Non-Insurance Businesses. Revenues from non-insurance businesses were derived from businesses engaged in the distribution of promotional merchandise, world-wide textile solutions and aviation-related businesses that provide services to aviation markets, including (i) the distribution, manufacturing, repair and overhaul of aircraft parts and components, (ii) the sale of new and used aircraft, and (iii) avionics, fuel, maintenance, storage and charter services. Revenues from non-insurance businesses were$197 million in 2021 and$169 million in 2020. The increase mainly relates to the business recovery from COVID-19 on aviation-related and textile businesses. Losses and Loss Expenses. Losses and loss expenses increased to$2,325 million in 2021 from$2,242 million in 2020. The consolidated loss ratio was 60.8% in 2021 and 66.6% in 2020. Catastrophe losses, net of reinsurance recoveries, were$80 million (including current accident year losses of approximately$40 million related to COVID-19) in 2021 and$225 million (including losses of approximately$143 million related to COVID-19) in 2020. Favorable prior year reserve development (net of premium offsets) was$4 million in 2021 and$7 million in 2020. The loss ratio excluding catastrophe losses and prior year reserve development was 58.8% in 2021 and 60.1% in 2020. A summary of loss ratios in 2021 compared with 2020 by business segment follows: •Insurance - The loss ratio was 61.3% in 2021 and 66.1% in 2020. Catastrophe losses were$70 million in 2021 compared with$171 million in 2020. The Company reflected a best estimate (net of reinsurance) based upon available information for current accident year COVID-19-related losses of approximately$38 million , primarily related to contingency and event cancellation coverage. Favorable prior year reserve development was$12 million in both 2021 and 2020. The loss ratio excluding catastrophe losses and prior year reserve development decreased 0.9 points to 59.7% in 2021 from 60.6% in 2020. •Reinsurance & Monoline Excess - The loss ratio was 57.4% in 2021 and 70.3% in 2020. Catastrophe losses were$10 million in 2021 compared with$54 million in 2020. The Company reflected a best estimate (net of reinsurance) based upon available information for current accident year COVID-19-related losses of approximately$2 million , primarily related to excess workers' compensation and short-tail lines. Adverse prior year reserve development was$8 million in 2021 and$5 in 2020. The loss ratio excluding catastrophe losses and prior year reserve development decreased 2.7 points to 53.5% in 2021 from 56.2% in 2020. Other Operating Costs and Expenses. Following is a summary of other operating costs and expenses: ($ in thousands) 2021
2020
Policy acquisition and insurance operating expenses$ 1,111,483 $ 1,051,158 Insurance service expenses 42,575 42,995 Net foreign currency gains (6,719) (28,923) Debt extinguishment costs 11,520 - Other costs and expenses 105,114 93,943 Total$ 1,263,973 $ 1,159,173 Policy acquisition and insurance operating expenses are comprised of commissions paid to agents and brokers, premium taxes and other assessments and internal underwriting costs. Policy acquisition and insurance operating expenses increased 6% and net premiums earned increased 13% from 2020. The expense ratio (underwriting expenses expressed as a percentage of net premiums earned) was 29.1% in 2021 and 31.2% in 2020. The improvement is primarily attributable to higher 42 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- net premiums earned outpacing compensation expense growth and lower travel and entertainment expenses due to the global pandemic. However, to the extent our net premiums earned decrease or travel and entertainment expenses increase, due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic or otherwise, our expense ratio would be expected to increase.
Service expenses, which represent the costs associated with the fee-based
businesses, were
Net foreign currency gains result from transactions denominated in a currency other than a company's operating functional currency. Net foreign currency gains were$7 million in 2021 compared to$29 million in 2020. The reduction in gains is primarily related to less weakening of the Argentine Peso compared to the USD in 2021 versus 2020 and strengthening of the GBP compared to the USD in 2021 versus weakening in 2020. Debt extinguishment costs of$12 million related to the redemption of$400 million of subordinated debentures in March andJune 2021 that were due in 2056. Other costs and expenses represent general and administrative expenses of the parent company and other expenses not allocated to business segments, including the cost of certain long-term incentive plans and new business ventures. Other costs and expenses increased to$105 million in 2021 from$94 million in 2020, primarily due to the increase in non-recurring performance-based compensation costs in 2021. Expenses from Non-Insurance Businesses. Expenses from non-insurance businesses represent costs associated with businesses engaged in the distribution of promotional merchandise, world-wide textile solutions and aviation-related businesses that include (i) cost of goods sold related to aircraft and products sold and services provided, and (ii) general and administrative expenses. Expenses from non-insurance businesses were$193 million in 2021 compared to$171 million in 2020. The increase mainly relates to the business recovery from COVID-19 on aviation-related and textile businesses. Interest Expense. Interest expense was$75 million in both 2021 and 2020. InMay 2020 , the Company issued$300 million aggregate principal amount of 4.00% senior notes due 2050. InSeptember 2020 , the Company issued an additional$170 million aggregate principal amount of 4.00% senior notes due 2050 and$250 million aggregate principal amount of 4.25% subordinated debentures due 2060 and repaid$300 million aggregate principal amount of 5.375% senior notes at maturity. InOctober 2020 , the Company redeemed$350 million aggregate principal amount of 5.625% subordinated debentures due 2053. InFebruary 2021 , the Company issued$300 million aggregate principal amount of 4.125% subordinated debenture due 2061. InMarch 2021 , the Company issued$400 million aggregate principal amount of 3.55% senior notes due 2052 and redeemed its$110 million aggregate principal amount of 5.90% subordinated debentures due 2056. OnJune 1, 2021 , the Company redeemed the$290 million aggregate principal amount of its 5.75% subordinated debentures due 2056. These redemptions resulted in debt extinguishment costs of$12 million during six months endedJune 30, 2021 . Additionally in second quarter of 2021, the Company sold a real estate asset which resulted in a$102 million reduction of the Company's debt that was supporting the property. The redemption of debentures and issuance of additional debentures in 2021, as described below in "Liquidity and Capital Resources -- Debt," are expected to decrease interest expense in 2021 and forward. Income Taxes. The effective income tax rate was 21.2% in 2021 and 31.2% in 2020. For the six months endedJune 30, 2021 , the effective income tax rate differs from the federal income tax rate of 21% principally because of state and foreign income taxes, which was partially offset by tax-exempt investment income and tax benefits related to equity-based compensation. The increased effective income tax rate for the six months endedJune 30, 2020 was principally because foreign jurisdictions were limited on the utilization of losses at different tax rates. The Company has not providedU.S. deferred income taxes on the undistributed earnings of approximately$119 million of its non-U.S. subsidiaries since these earnings are intended to be permanently reinvested in the non-U.S. subsidiaries. In the future, if such earnings were distributed the Company projects that the incremental tax, if any, will be immaterial. 43
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Results of Operations for the Three Months Ended
Following is a summary of gross and net premiums written, net premiums earned, loss ratios (losses and loss expenses incurred expressed as a percentage of net premiums earned), expense ratios (underwriting expenses expressed as a percentage of net premiums earned) and GAAP combined ratios (sum of loss ratio and expense ratio) for each of our business segments for the three months endedJune 30, 2021 and 2020. The GAAP combined ratio represents a measure of underwriting profitability, excluding investment income. A GAAP combined ratio in excess of 100 indicates an underwriting loss; a number below 100 indicates an underwriting profit. ($ in thousands) 2021 2020 Insurance: Gross premiums written$ 2,421,846 $ 1,917,702 Net premiums written 1,994,212 1,543,157 Net premiums earned 1,727,202 1,465,044 Loss ratio 61.4 % 67.0 % Expense ratio 28.5 % 30.7 % GAAP combined ratio 89.9 % 97.7 % Reinsurance & Monoline Excess: Gross premiums written$ 239,390 $ 214,544 Net premiums written 217,969 196,661 Net premiums earned 244,422 211,871 Loss ratio 58.2 % 72.2 % Expense ratio 30.4 % 32.9 % GAAP combined ratio 88.6 % 105.1 % Consolidated: Gross premiums written$ 2,661,236 $ 2,132,246 Net premiums written 2,212,181 1,739,818 Net premiums earned 1,971,624 1,676,915 Loss ratio 61.0 % 67.7 % Expense ratio 28.7 % 31.0 % GAAP combined ratio 89.7 % 98.7 % Net Income to Common Stockholders. The following table presents the Company's net income to common stockholders and net income per diluted share for the three months endedJune 30, 2021 and 2020: (In thousands, except per share data) 2021 2020 Net income to common stockholders$ 237,238 $ 71,260 Weighted average diluted shares 187,106 187,862 Net income per diluted share$ 1.27 $ 0.38 The Company reported net income to common stockholders of$237 million in 2021 compared to$71 million in 2020. The$166 million increase in net income was primarily due to an after-tax increase in underwriting income of$142 million mainly due to the growth in premium rates and exposure as well as reductions in loss ratio partly due to lower catastrophe losses and in expense ratio driven by net earned premium growth outpacing expense growth, an after-tax increase in net investment income of$66 million primarily due to investment funds, a reduction of$12 million in tax expense due to a change in the effective tax rate, an after-tax increase in profits from non-insurance businesses of$2 million , an after-tax increase in profit from insurance service businesses of$1 million and a less than$1 million after-tax increase in other income, partially offset by an after-tax reduction in net investment gains of$42 million primarily due to change in market value on equity securities partially offset by the sale of a real estate asset, an after-tax increase in corporate expenses of$10 million which includes an after-tax debt extinguishment expense of$6 million on debt redeemed in the second quarter of 2021 and an after-tax decrease in foreign currency gains of$5 million . The number of weighted average diluted shares decreased by less than one million for 2021 compared to 2020 mainly reflecting shares repurchased in 2020 and 2021. 44 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Premiums. Gross premiums written were$2,661 million in 2021, an increase of 25% from$2,132 million in 2020. The increase was due to a$504 million increase in the Insurance segment and a$25 million increase in the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment. Approximately 81% of premiums expiring in 2021 were renewed, and 78% of premiums expiring in 2020 were renewed.
Average renewal premium rates for insurance and facultative reinsurance increased 8.5% in 2021 when adjusted for changes in exposures, and increased 9.7% excluding workers' compensation.
A summary of gross premiums written in 2021 compared with 2020 by line of business within each business segment follows: •Insurance - gross premiums increased 26% to$2,422 million in 2021 from$1,918 million in 2020. Gross premiums increased$166 million (25%) for other liability,$142 million (50%) for professional liability,$76 million (34%) for commercial auto,$76 million (16%) for short-tail lines and$44 million (16%) for workers' compensation lines. •Reinsurance & Monoline Excess - gross premiums increased 12% to$239 million in 2021 from$215 million in 2020. Gross premiums increased$24 million (17%) for casualty reinsurance and$5 million (25%) for monoline excess, partially offset by a$5 million (9%) reduction for property reinsurance.
Net premiums written were
Premiums earned increased 18% to$1,972 million in 2021 from$1,677 million in 2020. Insurance premiums (including the impact of rate changes) are generally earned evenly over the policy term, and accordingly, recent rate increases will be earned over the upcoming quarters. Premiums earned in 2021 are related to business written during both 2021 and 2020. Audit premiums were$52 million in 2021 compared with$41 million in 2020.
Net Investment Income. Following is a summary of net investment income for the
three months ended
Average Annualized Amount Yield ($ in thousands) 2021 2020 2021 2020 Fixed maturity securities, including cash and cash equivalents and loans receivable$ 96,996 $ 105,843 2.2 % 2.7 % Investment funds 61,311 (57,552) 17.9 (19.4) Arbitrage trading account 3,914 31,304 2.5 20.6 Equity securities 7,212 2,726 5.2 3.1 Real estate 872 5,045 0.2 1.0 Gross investment income 170,305 87,366 3.2 1.8 Investment expenses (2,118) (1,935) - - Total$ 168,187 $ 85,431 3.1 % 1.7 % Net investment income increased 97% to$168 million in 2021 from$85 million in 2020 due primarily to a$119 million increase in income from investment funds primarily from financial services and energy funds and a$4 million increase from equity securities, partially offset by a$27 million decrease from the arbitrage trading account, a$9 million decrease in income from fixed maturity securities mainly driven by lower investment yields and a$4 million decrease in real estate. The Company shortened the duration of its fixed maturity security portfolio, thereby reducing the potential impact of mark-to-market on the portfolio and positioning the Company to react quickly to changes in the current interest rate environment. Average invested assets, at cost (including cash and cash equivalents), were$21.9 billion in 2021 and$19.6 billion in 2020. Insurance Service Fees. The Company earns fees from an insurance distribution business, a third-party administrator and as a servicing carrier of workers' compensation assigned risk plans for certain states. Insurance service fees were$22 million in 2021 and$20 million in 2020, an increase mainly due to the business recovery from the pandemic. Net Realized and Unrealized Gains (Losses) on Investments. The Company buys and sells securities and other investment assets on a regular basis in order to maximize its total return on investments. Decisions to sell securities and other investment assets are based on management's view of the underlying fundamentals of specific investments as well as management's expectations regarding interest rates, credit spreads, currency values and general economic conditions. Net realized and unrealized gains on investments were$20 million in 2021 compared with net gains of$62 million in 2020. The 45 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- gains of$20 million in 2021 reflect net realized gains on investments of$39 million (primarily due to the sale of certain real estate assets) partially offset by an increase in unrealized losses on equity securities of$19 million . In 2020, the gains of$62 million reflected net realized losses on investment sales of$261 thousand and an increase in unrealized gains on equity securities of$62 million . Change in Allowance for Expected Credit Losses on Investments. Based on credit factors, the allowance for expected credit losses is increased or decreased depending on the percentage of unrealized loss relative to amortized cost by security, changes in rating of the security by a rating agency, and adverse conditions specifically related to the security, among other factors. For the three months endedJune 30, 2021 , the pre-tax change in allowance for expected credit losses on investments decreased by$4 million ($3 million after-tax), which is reflected in net investment gains (losses), primarily related to the disposition of loans which were previously impaired. For the three months endedJune 30, 2020 , the pre-tax change in allowance for expected credit losses on investments decreased by$16 million ($13 million after-tax), which is reflected in net investment gains (losses), primarily related to market disruptions as a result of COVID-19. Revenues from Non-Insurance Businesses. Revenues from non-insurance businesses were derived from businesses engaged in the distribution of promotional merchandise, world-wide textile solutions and aviation-related businesses that provide services to aviation markets, including (i) the distribution, manufacturing, repair and overhaul of aircraft parts and components, (ii) the sale of new and used aircraft, and (iii) avionics, fuel, maintenance, storage and charter services. Revenues from non-insurance businesses were$109 million in 2021 and$76 million in 2020. The increase mainly relates to the business recovery from COVID-19 on aviation-related and textile businesses. Losses and Loss Expenses. Losses and loss expenses increased to$1,203 million in 2021 from$1,135 million in 2020. The consolidated loss ratio was 61.0% in 2021 and 67.7% in 2020. Catastrophe losses, net of reinsurance recoveries, were$44 million (including current accident year losses of approximately$25 million related to COVID-19) in 2021 and$146 million (including losses of approximately$86 million related to COVID-19) in 2020. Favorable prior year reserve development (net of premium offsets) was$400 thousand in 2021 and$3 million in 2020. The loss ratio excluding catastrophe losses and prior year reserve development was 58.8% in 2021 and 59.2% in 2020. A summary of loss ratios in 2021 compared with 2020 by business segment follows: •Insurance - The loss ratio was 61.4% in 2021 and 67.0% in 2020. Catastrophe losses were$37 million in 2021 compared with$114 million in 2020. The Company reflected a best estimate (net of reinsurance) based upon available information for current accident year COVID-19-related losses of approximately$23 million , primarily related to contingency and event cancellation coverage. Favorable prior year reserve development was$6 million in 2021 and$5 million in 2020. The loss ratio excluding catastrophe losses and prior year reserve development increased 0.3 points to 59.8% in 2021 from 59.5% in 2020, primarily due to higher than average non-weather related property losses. •Reinsurance & Monoline Excess - The loss ratio was 58.2% in 2021 and 72.2% in 2020. Catastrophe losses were$7 million in 2021 compared with$32 million in 2020. The Company reflected a best estimate (net of reinsurance) based upon available information for current accident year COVID-19-related losses of approximately$2 million , primarily related to excess workers' compensation and short-tail lines. Adverse prior year reserve development was$6 million in 2021 and$2 million in 2020. The loss ratio excluding catastrophe losses and prior year reserve development decreased 3.5 points to 52.9% in 2021 from 56.4% in 2020. Other Operating Costs and Expenses. Following is a summary of other operating costs and expenses: ($ in thousands) 2021
2020
Policy acquisition and insurance operating expenses
Insurance service expenses 21,789
20,423
Net foreign currency losses (1,125)
(7,382)
Debt extinguishment costs 7,903
-
Other costs and expenses 53,405
48,565 Total$ 647,705 $ 580,840 Policy acquisition and insurance operating expenses are comprised of commissions paid to agents and brokers, premium taxes and other assessments and internal underwriting costs. Policy acquisition and insurance operating expenses increased 9% and net premiums earned increased 18% from 2020. The expense ratio (underwriting expenses expressed as a percentage of premiums earned) was 28.7% in 2021 and 31.0% in 2020. The improvement is primarily attributable to higher net premiums earned outpacing compensation expense growth. However, to the extent our net premiums earned decrease or travel 46 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
and entertainment expenses increase, due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic or otherwise, our expense ratio would be expected to increase.
Service expenses, which represent the costs associated with the fee-based
businesses, were
Net foreign currency gains result from transactions denominated in a currency other than a company's operating functional currency. Net foreign currency gains were$1 million in 2021 compared to$7 million in 2020. Debt extinguishment costs of$8 million in 2021 related to the redemption of a$290 million subordinated debenture inJune 2021 that was due in 2056. Other costs and expenses represent general and administrative expenses of the parent company and other expenses not allocated to business segments, including the cost of certain long-term incentive plans and new business ventures. Other costs and expenses increased to$53 million in 2021 from$49 million in 2020, primarily due to the increase in non-recurring performance-based compensation costs in 2021. Expenses from Non-Insurance Businesses. Expenses from non-insurance businesses represent costs associated with businesses engaged in the distribution of promotional merchandise, world-wide textile solutions and aviation-related businesses that include (i) cost of goods sold related to aircraft and products sold and services provided, and (ii) general and administrative expenses. Expenses from non-insurance businesses were$107 million in 2021 compared to$76 million in 2020. The increase mainly relates to the business recovery from COVID-19 on aviation-related and textile businesses. Interest Expense. Interest expense was$38 million in both 2021 and 2020. InMay 2020 , the Company issued$300 million aggregate principal amount of 4.00% senior notes due 2050. InSeptember 2020 , the Company issued an additional$170 million aggregate principal amount of 4.00% senior notes due 2050 and$250 million aggregate principal amount of 4.25% subordinated debentures due 2060 and repaid$300 million aggregate principal amount of 5.375% senior notes at maturity. InOctober 2020 , the Company redeemed$350 million aggregate principal amount of 5.625% subordinated debentures due 2053. InFebruary 2021 , the Company issued$300 million aggregate principal amount of 4.125% subordinated debenture due 2061. InMarch 2021 , the Company issued$400 million aggregate principal amount of 3.55% senior notes due 2052 and redeemed its$110 million aggregate principal amount of 5.90% subordinated debentures due 2056. OnJune 1, 2021 , the Company redeemed the$290 million aggregate principal amount of its 5.75% subordinated debentures due 2056. These redemptions resulted in debt extinguishment costs of$12 million in 2021, including$8 million in the second quarter of 2021. Additionally in second quarter of 2021, the Company sold a real estate asset which resulted in a$102 million reduction of the Company's debt that was supporting the property. The redemption of debentures and issuance of additional debentures in 2021, as described below in "Liquidity and Capital Resources -- Debt," are expected to decrease interest expense in 2021 and forward. Income Taxes. The effective income tax rate was 20.8% in 2021 and 32.0% in 2020. The effective income tax rate differs from the federal income tax rate of 21% principally because of state and foreign income taxes, which was partially offset by tax-exempt investment income and tax benefits related to equity-based compensation. The increased effective income tax rate for the three months endedJune 30, 2021 was principally because foreign jurisdictions were limited on the utilization of losses at different tax rates. The Company has not providedU.S. deferred income taxes on the undistributed earnings of approximately$119 million of its non-U.S. subsidiaries since these earnings are intended to be permanently reinvested in the non-U.S. subsidiaries. In the future, if such earnings were distributed the Company projects that the incremental tax, if any, will be immaterial. 47 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Investments
As part of its investment strategy, the Company establishes a level of cash and highly liquid short-term and intermediate-term securities that, combined with expected cash flow, it believes is adequate to meet its payment obligations. Due to the low fixed maturity investment returns, the Company invests in equity securities, merger arbitrage securities, investment funds, private equity, loans and real estate related assets. The Company's investments in investment funds and its other alternative investments have experienced, and the Company expects to continue to experience, greater fluctuations in investment income. The Company also attempts to maintain an appropriate relationship between the average duration of the investment portfolio and the approximate duration of its liabilities (i.e., policy claims and debt obligations). The average duration of the fixed maturity portfolio, including cash and cash equivalents, was 2.4 years at bothJune 30, 2021 andDecember 31, 2020 . The Company's fixed maturity investment portfolio and investment-related assets as ofJune 30, 2021 were as follows: Carrying Percent ($ in thousands) Value of Total Fixed maturity securities: U.S. government and government agencies$ 502,625 2.3 % State and municipal: Special revenue 2,176,388 9.8 Local general obligation 452,710 2.0 State general obligation 451,588 2.0 Pre-refunded (1) 248,137 1.1 Corporate backed 165,190 0.8 Total state and municipal 3,494,013 15.7 Mortgage-backed: Agency 661,323 3.0 Commercial 143,586 0.6 Residential-Prime 117,488 0.5 Residential-Alt A 7,029 - Total mortgage-backed 929,426 4.1 Asset-backed 4,317,863 19.4 Corporate: Industrial 3,106,003 13.9 Financial 1,633,318 7.3 Utilities 423,848 1.9 Other 177,494 0.8 Total corporate 5,340,663 23.9
Foreign government and foreign government agencies 1,068,918 4.8 Total fixed maturity securities
15,653,508 70.2 Equity securities: Common stocks 449,500 2.0 Preferred stocks 193,493 0.9 Total equity securities 642,993 2.9 Cash and cash equivalents (2) 2,088,319 9.4 Real estate 1,811,263 8.1 Investment funds 1,368,661 6.1 Arbitrage trading account 634,276 2.8 Loans receivable 116,009 0.5 Total investments$ 22,315,029 100.0 % ____________________ (1) Pre-refunded securities are securities for which an escrow account has been established to fund the remaining payments of principal and interest through maturity. Such escrow accounts are funded almost exclusively withU.S. Treasury andU.S. government agency securities. (2) Cash and cash equivalents includes trading accounts receivable from brokers and clearing organizations, trading account securities sold but not yet purchased and unsettled purchases. 48 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------Fixed Maturity Securities . The Company's investment policy with respect to fixed maturity securities is generally to purchase instruments with the expectation of holding them to their maturity. However, management of the available for sale portfolio is considered necessary to maintain an approximate matching of assets and liabilities as well as to adjust the portfolio as a result of changes in financial market conditions and tax considerations. The Company's philosophy related to holding or selling fixed maturity securities is based on its objective of maximizing total return. The key factors that management considers in its investment decisions as to whether to hold or sell fixed maturity securities are its view of the underlying fundamentals of specific securities as well as its expectations regarding interest rates, credit spreads and currency values. In a period in which management expects interest rates to rise, the Company may sell longer duration securities in order to mitigate the impact of an interest rate rise on the fair value of the portfolio. Similarly, in a period in which management expects credit spreads to widen, the Company may sell lower quality securities, and in a period in which management expects certain foreign currencies to decline in value, the Company may sell securities denominated in those foreign currencies. The sale of fixed maturity securities in order to achieve the objective of maximizing total return may result in realized gains; however, there is no reason to expect these gains to continue in future periods.Equity Securities . Equity securities primarily represent investments in common and preferred stocks in companies with potential growth opportunities in different sectors, mainly in the financial institutions and energy sectors. Investment Funds. AtJune 30, 2021 , the carrying value of investment funds was$1,369 million , including investments in financial services funds of$452 million , transportation funds of$271 million , real estate funds of$263 million , other funds of$234 million and energy funds of$149 million . Investment funds are generally reported on a one-quarter lag. Real Estate. Real estate is directly owned property held for investment. AtJune 30, 2021 , real estate properties in operation included a long-term ground lease inWashington D.C. , an office complex inNew York City , an office building inLondon , and the completed portion of a mixed-use project inWashington D.C. In addition, part of the previously mentioned mixed-use project inWashington D.C. is under development. The Company expects to fund further development costs for the project with a combination of its own funds and external financing. Arbitrage Trading Account. The arbitrage trading account is comprised of direct investments in arbitrage securities. Merger arbitrage is the business of investing in the securities of publicly held companies that are the targets in announced tender offers and mergers. Loans Receivable. Loans receivable, which are carried at amortized cost (net of allowance for expected credit losses), had an amortized cost of$116 million and an aggregate fair value of$118 million atJune 30, 2021 . The amortized cost of loans receivable is net of an allowance for expected credit losses of$2 million as ofJune 30, 2021 . Loans receivable include real estate loans of$90 million that are secured by commercial and residential real estate located primarily inNew York . Real estate loans generally earn interest at fixed or stepped interest rates and have maturities through 2026. Loans receivable include commercial loans of$26 million that are secured by business assets and have fixed interest rates with varying maturities not exceeding 10 years. Market Risk. The fair value of the Company's investments is subject to risks of fluctuations in credit quality and interest rates. The Company uses various models and stress test scenarios to monitor and manage interest rate risk. The Company attempts to manage its interest rate risk by maintaining an appropriate relationship between the effective duration of the investment portfolio and the approximate duration of its liabilities (i.e., policy claims and debt obligations). The effective duration for the fixed maturity portfolio (including cash and cash equivalents) was 2.4 years at bothJune 30, 2021 andDecember 31, 2020 . In addition, the fair value of the Company's international investments is subject to currency risk. The Company attempts to manage its currency risk by matching its foreign currency assets and liabilities where considered appropriate. 49 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Liquidity and Capital Resources
Cash Flow. Cash flow provided from operating activities increased to
The Company's insurance subsidiaries' principal sources of cash are premiums, investment income, service fees and proceeds from sales and maturities of portfolio investments. The principal uses of cash are payments for claims, taxes, operating expenses and dividends. The Company expects its insurance subsidiaries to fund the payment of losses with cash received from premiums, investment income and fees. The Company generally targets an average duration for its investment portfolio that is within 1.5 years of the average duration of its liabilities so that portions of its investment portfolio mature throughout the claim cycle and are available for the payment of claims if necessary. In the event operating cash flow and proceeds from maturities and prepayments of fixed income securities are not sufficient to fund claim payments and other cash requirements, the remainder of the Company's cash and investments is available to pay claims and other obligations as they become due. The Company's investment portfolio is highly liquid, with approximately 79% invested in cash, cash equivalents and marketable fixed maturity securities as ofJune 30, 2021 . If the sale of fixed maturity securities were to become necessary, a realized gain or loss equal to the difference between the cost and sales price of securities sold would be recognized. Debt. AtJune 30, 2021 , the Company had senior notes, subordinated debentures and other debt outstanding with a carrying value of$2,919 million and a face amount of$2,937 million , including$300 million aggregate principal amount of its 4.125% subordinated debentures due 2061 issued inFebruary 2021 as well as$400 million aggregate principal amount of its 3.55% senior notes due 2052 issued inMarch 2021 . The Company redeemed its$110 million aggregate principal amount of 5.90% subordinated debentures due 2056 onMarch 1, 2021 and its$290 million aggregate principal amount of 5.75% subordinated debentures due 2056 onJune 1, 2021 . Additionally in the second quarter of 2021, the Company sold a real estate asset which resulted in a$102 million reduction of the Company's debt that was supporting the property. The maturities of the outstanding debt are$3 million in 2021,$426 million in 2022,$3 million in 2025,$250 million in 2037,$350 million in 2044,$470 million in 2050,$400 million in 2052,$185 million in 2058,$300 million in 2059,$250 million in 2060 and$300 million in 2061. Equity. AtJune 30, 2021 , total common stockholders' equity was$6.6 billion , common shares outstanding were 177,413,970 and stockholders' equity per outstanding share was$37.08 . During the six months endedJune 30, 2021 , the Company repurchased 465,063 shares of its common stock for$30 million . In the second quarter of 2021, the Board declared a regular quarterly cash dividend of$0.13 per share and a special cash dividend of$0.50 per share. The number of common shares outstanding excludes shares held in a grantor trust established by the Company for delivery upon settlement of vested but mandatorily deferred RSUs. Total Capital. Total capitalization (equity, debt and subordinated debentures) was$9.5 billion atJune 30, 2021 . The percentage of the Company's capital attributable to senior notes, subordinated debentures and other debt was 31% atJune 30, 2021 and 30% atDecember 31, 2020 .
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